tailieunhanh - PRIMATES AND PHILOSOPHERS Part 3

Khối lượng của Linh trưởng từ Madame Berthe's Mouse Lemur, với khối lượng chỉ 30 gam (1,1 oz) đến Mountain Gorilla có khối lượng 200 kilôgam (440 lb). | 28 FRANS DE WAAL empathy and sympathy and their expression in psychological altruism . Hornblow 1980 Hoffman 1982 Batson et al. 1987 Eisenberg and Strayer 1987 Wispé 1991 . It is reasonable to assume that the altruistic and caring responses of other animals especially mammals rest on similar mechanisms. When Zahn-Waxler visited homes to find out how children respond to family members instructed to feign sadness sobbing pain crying or distress choking she discovered that children a little over one year of age already comfort others. Since expressions of sympathy emerge at an early age in virtually every member of our species they are as natural as the first step. An unplanned sidebar to this study however was that household pets appeared as worried as the children by the distress of family members. They hovered over them or put their heads in their laps Zahn-Waxler et al. 1984 . Rooted in attachment and what Harlow termed the af-fectional system Harlow and Harlow 1965 responses to the emotions of others are commonplace in social animals. Thus behavioral and physiological data suggest emotional contagion in a variety of species reviewed in Preston and de Waal 2002b and de Waal 2003 . An interesting literature that appeared in the 1950s and 60s by experimental psychologists placed the words empathy and sympathy between quotation marks. In those days talk of animal emotions was taboo. In a paper provocatively entitled Emotional Reactions of Rats to the Pain of Others Church 1959 established that rats that had learned to press a lever to obtain food would stop doing so if their response was paired with the delivery of an electric shock to a visible neighboring rat. Even though this inhibition habituated rapidly it suggested something aversive about the pain reactions of others. Perhaps MORALLY EVOLVED 29 such reactions arouse negative emotions in rats that witness them. Monkeys show a stronger inhibition than rats. The most compelling evidence for the strength of .