tailieunhanh - Introduction to Probability - Chapter 8

Chapter 8 Law of Large Numbers Law of Large Numbers for Discrete Random Variables We are now in a position to prove our first fundamental theorem of probability. We have seen that an intuitive way to view the probability of a certain outcome is as the frequency with which that outcome occurs in the long run | Chapter 8 Law of Large Numbers Law of Large Numbers for Discrete Random Variables We are now in a position to prove our first fundamental theorem of probability. We have seen that an intuitive way to view the probability of a certain outcome is as the frequency with which that outcome occurs in the long run when the experiment is repeated a large number of times. We have also defined probability mathematically as a value of a distribution function for the random variable representing the experiment. The Law of Large Numbers which is a theorem proved about the mathematical model of probability shows that this model is consistent with the frequency interpretation of probability. This theorem is sometimes called the law of averages. To find out what would happen if this law were not true see the article by Robert M. Chebyshev Inequality To discuss the Law of Large Numbers we first need an important inequality called the Chebyshev Inequality. Theorem Chebyshev Inequality Let X be a discrete random variable with expected value a E X and let e 0 be any positive real number. Then P IX - a e . Proof. Let m x denote the distribution function of X. Then the probability that X differs from a by at least e is given by P X - a Y m x . 1R. M. Coates The Law The World of Mathematics ed. James R. Newman New York Simon and Schuster 1956. 305 306 CHAPTER 8. LAW OF LARGE NUMBERS We know that V X x - i i 2m x x and this is clearly at least as large as 2 x i 2m x x since all the summands are positive and we have restricted the range of summation in the second sum. But this last sum is at least e2m x e2 m x e2P X i e . So P X - v e Note that X in the above theorem can be any discrete random variable and e any positive number. Example Let X by any random variable with E X i and V X a2. Then if e ka Chebyshev s Inequality states that P X 1 ka 712 . k2a2 k2 Thus for any random variable the probability of a deviation from the mean of more than k standard deviations is 1

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